The EMCDDA and Europol have published today a new analysis – ‘EU Drug Market: Cannabis’ – which indicates that cannabis products are becoming increasingly potent and diverse, with co-operation between criminal groups creating new security risks in Europe, Europol reports.
The analysis details the illicit European market for cannabis products, from production and trafficking to distribution and use. It also provides detailed information on the processes, materials and criminal actors involved at different stages and levels of the market.
According to the latest estimates, around 22.6 million EU adults (15-64 years old) have used cannabis in the last year. The annual cannabis market is worth at least €11.4 billion and is the largest drug market in Europe. In 2021, seizures of cannabis herb and cannabis resin in the EU reached their highest levels in the past decade, at 256 tonnes and 816 tonnes, respectively. In addition, more than 4.3 million cannabis plants were intercepted.
Most of the herbal cannabis in the EU is grown locally. The Western Balkan region remains a source, although to a lesser extent than in the past. Some cannabis products, including herbal cannabis, are currently smuggled into the EU from North America. Morocco continues to be the largest supplier of cannabis resin to Europe, but there are indications that EU resin production may be increasing.
Recent data shows a significant increase in cannabinoid content. Between 2011 and 2021, the average cannabis herb content in the EU increased by around 57%, while the average cannabis resin content increased by almost 200% over the same period, raising further health concerns for consumers.
Cannabis products in Europe are becoming increasingly diverse and include a range of natural, semi-synthetic and synthetic cannabinoids available in various forms, although cannabis herb and resin continue to dominate the market. Cannabis products include oil, various other high-potency extracts called “concentrates”, vaping products and edibles. Retailers are increasingly using commercial marketing strategies both offline and online to advertise and sell products. Some of these products pose a high health risk to consumers due to their content, often exceeding 90 per cent delta-9-THC. Others may contain dangerous synthetic cannabinoids. In addition, several semi-synthetic cannabinoids (e.g. delta-8-THC, HGC) have emerged in recent years, emphasising the need for careful monitoring.
The cannabis trade in Europe involves a wide range of networks consisting of both EU and non-EU criminals. These networks are highly co-operative, especially at the wholesale level, sharing resources, building partnerships and providing services from production to distribution.
Some criminal networks act as service providers for cannabis traffickers. Examples include networks specialising in the supply of boats to cannabis resin traffickers, while other networks provide drones and helicopters. The methods used to smuggle cannabis have also diversified. This shows how adaptable and opportunistic criminals can be. For example, in addition to traditional means of transport, unmanned semi-submersible vessels have recently been seized in investigations. The booming cannabis trade is not without consequences: it has been linked to violent clashes in a number of EU countries. Corruption associated with the cannabis market also contributes to undermining the rule of law, security and governance.
A published analysis rates illegal cannabis production on the environment as “significant”, which is associated with significant water, energy and chemical pollution. For example, an indoor cannabis growing site consisting of 500 plants potentially consumes between 1.6 and 2 million litres of water per year. Energy consumption accounts for most of the carbon dioxide emissions from the production process, especially in indoor cannabis cultivation. Most of the electricity used for indoor cannabis cultivation in the EU is stolen. The carbon footprint of indoor cannabis cultivation is also staggering, estimated to be 16-100 times higher than outdoor cultivation.
The political debate around the cannabis market continues globally and in some EU countries, with repeated changes in approaches to regulating and controlling the drug. To date, five EU member countries (Czech Republic, Germany, Malta, Luxembourg and the Netherlands) have introduced or are planning to introduce new approaches to regulating the supply of cannabis for recreational use. Switzerland has also begun trials of legal cannabis sales in early 2023. These developments emphasise the need to invest in monitoring and evaluation to fully understand their impact on public health and safety.
Today’s findings are based on data and information from EMCDDA’s drug monitoring system and Europol’s intelligence on serious and organised crime. Using a threat assessment approach, the agencies highlight key areas for action at EU and Member State level in response to the development of the illicit cannabis market. These include: strengthening policy, health and security measures, including responding to environmental risks, improving the strategic intelligence picture; enhancing monitoring of potency and emerging health risks; investing in capacity building; and promoting technological innovation.
Europol’s Executive Director Catherine De Bolle states:
Cocaine seizures might be grabbing the headlines, but trafficking of cannabis is just as important a threat. The cannabis trade yields a staggering EUR 11.4 billion annually, which is still a minimum estimated value of the market. In addition to the impact on public health, the substantial illegal proceeds criminal networks obtain from trafficking cannabis fuel dire consequences — criminals increasingly veer into extreme violence to further their criminal goals and use these proceeds to fund other criminal activities and infiltrate economies and societies. This is just one of the reasons why our fight against criminal networks involved in cannabis trafficking should go hand in hand with efforts to mitigate the associated societal harms.
EMCDDA Director Alexis Goosdeel says:
Cannabis continues to divide public opinion and remains the subject of European and international debate. Today’s analysis looks at the elements needed to support evidence-based policymaking and preparedness in this complex domain, where the scope of cannabis policies is widening and where products are becoming increasingly potent and diverse. Our new findings come at a time when decision-makers must address a vast array of challenges posed by Europe’s largest illicit drug market, from the heavy carbon footprint left by cannabis cultivation, to health harms, corruption and violence on our streets.
